Shifting commute travel from peak period automobile trips to alternative times and modes can provide a variety of benefits.

Employee Benefits

CTR programs can benefit employees by increasing their travel options, reducing travel stress and by providing financial savings.  Some studies show that many workers place a high value on having commute alternatives.[22]  Even people who generally enjoy driving do not necessarily want to drive to work every day.  At the margin (i.e., relative to current levels of vehicle travel), many consumers would probably prefer to drive somewhat less, provided that they had good mobility alternatives with adequate comfort, convenience and prestige.

Employer Benefits[23]

CTR programs can benefit employers by reducing their parking costs or freeing up parking for customers.  Programs that improve travel choices or provide financial benefits tend to improve employee morale and recruitment, and reduce employee turnover.  For example, employee turnover at the Calvert Group (an investment firm) declined from 25% to 12% after a comprehensive package of commute benefits were introduced, and other surveys find that telecommuting reduces employee turnover by 16%.[24]

Community Benefits

CTR is particularly effective at reducing traffic congestion since commute trips are the largest share of peak-period travel.  It can reduce road, on-street parking and traffic service costs.  Along with reducing GHG emissions, it can also help reduce pollution and crash risk, and increase demand for alternative modes, providing economies of scale.  By reducing road and parking facility requirements, it supports more efficient land use, compact development and more pedestrian-oriented streetscapes.

CTR costs

Costs include program administration expenses and any additional employee time requirements.[25]  Administrative costs typically average $1-8 per employee per month to cover program planning, marketing, management and evaluation activities.[26] A survey by Pollution Probe found that the American employers with successful CTR programs spend an average of $156 annually per employer, with the majority spending $33 to $89.[27]  However, there are also savings and benefits to businesses that may offset much of these costs.[28]

Some costs and benefits are economic transfers, in which costs to one group are offset by benefits to another.  For example, charging motorists directly for using parking facilities increases costs to automobile commuters but provides additional revenue to businesses.[29]  Financial incentives for commuters that choose alternative forms of transportation represent an economic transfer from employers to employees, and often substitute for other employee benefits such as free parking.[30] 

 

Commute Trip Reductions

CASE STUDY:  Trip Reduction Ordinances[31]

Some jurisdictions have ordinances that require or encourage commute trip reduction programs.  Below are some examples.  Washington State’s Commute Trip Reduction Law (CTR)[32] is designed to reduce traffic congestion, pollution and fuel consumption.  Employers in major urban areas with more than 100 employees at a worksite are required to develop CTR programs that encourage employees who drive alone to work to consider using an alternative commute mode such as buses, vanpools, carpools, biking, walking, telecommuting and flexible work schedules.[33]   Maricopa County, AZ [34] requires major worksites with 50 or more employees to implement trip reduction programs.[35]   Cambridge, MA[36] has an ordinance requiring businesses to implement TDM at new developments.[37]   South Notomas, CA[38] allows developers to use TDM programs, such as participation in a TMA, to help gain municipal acceptance of new developments.[39] Bay Area, CA[40] requires all public and private employers with 100 or more employees at a work site to establish employee trip reduction targets for various locations and years, and identify various strategies to help achieve these targets.[41] Pima County, AZ under the PIMA Association of Governments,[42] established Travel Reduction Ordinances (TRO) to improve air quality and reduce traffic congestion by increasing alternate mode usage and reducing overall motor vehicle travel for commute trips.[43]

 

 

Implement Parking Management Programs [44]

Managing the type and number of parking lots can reduce pavement space and vehicle use in a city.  A variety of techniques allow cities to incorporate GHG reduction into parking management systems.  For example, implementing storm water management fees based on the amount of pavement on a lot, and per-space parking levies, act as incentives to property owners to reduce parking supply and implement transportation management programs. Strategic parking management programs can also maximize parking space, and encourage alternative transport that reduce the number of parking spaces needed in a community.  The next table summarizes these parking management strategies, and indicates the potential reduction in parking supply that they can typically provide.

 

Management Strategy	Description
Strategies That Result In More Efficient Use of Parking Facilities
Shared Parking	Parking spaces are shared by more than one user allowing facilities to be used more efficiently.
Regulate Parking Facility Use	More convenient and visible parking spaces are managed and regulated to give priority to higher-value trips, increase efficiency and user convenience.
More Accurate and Flexible Standards	Reduce or adjust standards to more accurately reflect demand at a particular location, taking into account geographic, demographic and economic factors.
Parking Maximums	Establish maximum in addition or instead of minimum parking standards to avoid excessive parking supply.
Remote Parking	Encouraging longer-term parkers to use off-site or fringe parking facilities, so more convenient spaces are available for priority users.
Improving User Information and Marketing	Provide convenient and accurate information on parking availability and price, using maps, signs, brochures and electronic communication.
Smart Growth and Location Efficient Development	Encourage more clustered, mixed, multi-modal, infill development, which allows more shared parking and use of alternative modes.
Improved Walkability	Improve pedestrian conditions to allow parkers to conveniently access more parking facilities, increasing the functional supply in an area.
Transportation Management Associations	Transportation Management Associations are private, non-profit, member-controlled organizations that can provide a variety of services that encourage more efficient use of transport and parking resources in an area.
Increase Capacity of Existing Parking Facilities	More parking spaces can sometimes be provided by using currently wasted space, sizing spaces for smaller vehicles and motorcycles, and using car stackers.
Strategies That Reduce Parking Demand
Transportation Demand Management Programs	Various strategies and programs can encourage more efficient travel patterns, which reduces automobile trips and parking demand.
Parking Pricing	Charge motorists directly for using parking facilities, and set fees to encourage efficient use of parking facilities.
Improve Parking Pricing Methods	Use of more convenient and effective parking pricing techniques to make parking pricing more acceptable and cost effective.
Commuter Financial Incentives	Parking cash out and transit benefits give commuters a financial incentives to shift modes and reduce parking demand.
Unbundle Parking	Rent or sell parking spaces separately from building space, so occupants pay for just the number of parking spaces that they use.
Tax Parking Facilities	Impose special taxes on parking facilities and commercial parking transactions.
Improve Enforcement and Control	Enforcement should be consistent, fair and friendly. Parking passes should have clear limitations regarding where, when and by whom they may be used, and these limitations should be enforced.
Bicycle Facilities	Supply bicycle parking, storage and changing facilities instead of some automobile parking spaces.

Strategies that Reduce Negative Impacts
Develop Overflow Parking Plans	Encourage use of remote parking facilities and promote use of alternative modes during peak periods, such as busy shopping times and major events.
Address Spillover Problems	Address spillover parking problems directly with management, pricing and enforcement strategies.
Parking Facility Design and Management	Improved parking facility design to address safety, storm-water management, user comfort, security and aesthetic objectives.

Table:  Typical Parking Management Strategies

The table below indicates the typical reductions in parking  requirements provided by various parking management strategies, and indicates those that also tend to reduce vehicle traffic.

 

Strategy	Parking Requirement Reductions			Reduce Vehicle Traffic
	Low	Medium	High
Shared Parking	10%	20%	30%
Parking Regulations	10%	20%	30%
More Accurate Standards	10%	20%	30%
Parking Maximums	10%	20%	30%
Remote Parking	10%	20%	30%
Smart Growth	10%	20%	30%	X
Walking and Cycling Improvements	5%	10%	15%	X
Increase Capacity of Existing Facilities	5%	10%	15%
Mobility Management	10%	20%	30%	X
Parking Pricing	10%	20%	30%	X
Improve Pricing Methods	NA	NA	NA	X
Financial Incentives	10%	20%	30%	X
Unbundle Parking	10%	20%	30%	X
Parking Tax Reform	5%	10%	15%	X
Bicycle Facilities	5%	10%	15%	X
Improve User Information	5%	10%	15%	X
Improve Enforcement and Control	NA	NA	NA
Transportation Management Associations	NA	NA	NA	X
Overflow Parking Plans	NA	NA	NA
Address Spillover Problems